Energy Assignment Part 3

Solar energy

Solar energy could be reasonably implemented in Madagascar. This approach will enable the delivery of electricity to people at a cost of less than $7 per connected person. The climate of the country has much sunlight and heat which would support the use of solar panels. The government has begun to look into options concerning solar power. Saft developed its Sunica plus Ni-Cd battery specifically for storing photovoltaic, wind and hybrid energy in
isolated locations, with many remote
installations for utilities, signaling and
telecoms applications.

Wind energy

The cost of the initiative is placed around US $80 million. There are some issues dealing with location. Installing the large turbines usually found in a wind farm requires a lengthy preliminary study, which has not been done. Also, it is difficult to control for the wind speed, and usually turbine rotors are built for the airflow characteristics of a location which could be difficult in this situation. Madagascar is currently developing plans to use wind energy. Several projects have been underway in the northern part of the country. They believe that the projects will contribute to poverty alleviation as good job opportunities will be offered for qualified candidates in the fields of development, surveillance and maintenance as well as tradesmen.    

Coal energy

Coal currently takes up about 1% of the energy used in Madagascar. There are many deposits throughout the country that can be used for energy. The mining operations could create many jobs and could increase their renewable resources. There have been plans drawn up by the government for usage of this valuable energy source.

My rankings for likelihood of implementation are:
1. Wind energy
2. Solar energy
3. Coal energy

They have committed to wind energy. Solar energy is possible and while it could be expensive at first, this country could look towards the long term benefits. And then there's coal. With enough damage done to the environment already, I doubt there would be a heavy investment in coal energy.

Energy Assignment Part 2

Hydropower is the main type of energy used in Madagascar. With the abundance of small rivers on the island, hydropower has become the environmentally sound choice for generating electricity. It has  contributed about two-thirds of the country's electric power. Madagascar has huge potential in the field of renewable energy with regards to hydropower. This could help improve the electricity coverage for people living in rural areas.Madagascar has an installed total electricity generating capacity of 810 megawatts. The average cost of electricity for domestic consumers is about US $0.14 per kilowatt hour. This cost is principally due to the use of expensive imported diesel fuel to feed the thermal plants. Given the dependency on the oil imports and in the line of long term development of the country, Madagascar has ideas for extending electricity access. Madagascar plans to increase the electricity access rate to 74% in urban environment and 10% in rural environment in the next 5 years. The energy supply will be derived from all possible sources of energy in Madagascar (solar, hydro, wind, bio).

Land Use in Madagascar

1. In Madagascar, about 71% of the land is used for agriculture. Approximately 21% is comprised of forests and less than 1% is urban land.

2.
Monoculture
Pros - This method is much cheaper and machine usage requires less labor. It is very simple and successful crops enjoy very high rates of production.
Cons - This can also deplete nitrogen levels in the soils and it can spread diseases through the plants. There is a heavy usage of fossil fuels, chemicals and technology and it can cause a lot of environmental damage.

Polyculture
Pros - This only requires a smaller amount of land and natural resources can be used more efficiently. Water and electricity can be used more effectively to produce more. Animal wastes can be used as fertilizers and manure for crops. Also, the income for the farmers is a lot more stable and consistent.
Cons - It is difficult for the farmers to control all of their crops because they have to check on each one. Planning polyculture farming can also be very time consuming and planting which makes it a very laborious task. There is a need for  greater infrastructure to get the work done on a land for this method of farming.

Slash and Burn
Pros - This practice is very cheap. When practiced on a smaller land, it's not as devastating as burning down a great deal of land. If decades have past between each burn, it can be beneficial for the enivorment and the soil. 
Cons - Burning this tremendous amount of land is damaging to the environment. Without proerly evacuating animals in the area, the animals there could be killed. Also, slash and burn smoke causes the air quality to become really poor.

3. Madagascar primarily uses traditional farming methods which involves the slash and burn method. The main crop farmed in Madagascar is rice. It is grown throughout the country. Maize is farmed primarily in the south-central regions of the country and cassava along the east coast. The type of crop that takes up the highest percentage of the country's agriculture are cereal crops which includes rice and maize. The top 3 exported crops in Madagascar are coffee, vanilla and cloves.

Energy Assignment Part 1

Coal Energy

Pros - Coal is cheap and plentiful in many areas of the world, including Europe and North America. Coal deposits are typically located close to the surface and cover large areas, allowing many coal mines to operate for decades using relatively safe and inexpensive mining techniques. It is also easy to store and very easy to convert into energy.

Cons - Coal is a major source of several pollutants including carbon dioxide, a green house gas, and sulfur dioxide which is damaging to health. It speeds up the rate of global warming and it is non-renewable. It is just devastating to the environment.

Uses - Coal has many important uses worldwide. The most significant uses of coal is in electricity generation, steel production, cement manufacturing and as a liquid fuel. About 6.6 billion tonnes of hard coal were used worldwide last year and 1 billion tonnes of brown coal. There are different types of coal with different uses. Stream coal is used in power generation and Coking coal is used in steel production.

Solar Energy

Pros - Solar energy is a clean energy source as solar panels virtually give off no contamination. Solar energy is a renewable source of energy which means we can not run out of it. We will continue to get solar energy as long as sun is there. Another pro of solar energy is that it is sustainable. The power can be gained from remote areas too. It is very silent, low maintenance and it will lead to a reduction in your electricity bill.

Cons - The most significant con of solar energy is how much it costs to install the solar panels on your home. Some families may require more than one which makes the starting cost of solar panels expensive. Also, solar energy is only capable of producing power during the daytime. You will need a large area to install them and they are expensive store.

Uses - One use of solar panels is for ventilation. It can also be used to heat homes and water. It can provide indoor and outdoor lighting as well as provide the power for your house.

Wind Energy

Pros - Wind energy is clean and renewable. It can be set up on existing farmland to make it an easier transition. There is a lot of potential with wind energy and land owners can reap the benefits of significant savings.

Cons - Having to rely on the wind is not exactly ideal as most wind turbines function only about 30% of the time. These turbines could also harm natural wildlife such as birds who could get hit. Also, setting up wind turbines is quite expensive. And because it requires a lot of space, there is an impact of the environment with regards to cutting down trees to clear space.

Uses - Wind energy can be used to power many things like vehicles, water pumps, sports and your house.

Water Use in Madagascar

1) My shock wasn't for the fact that the water was being taken, but the alarmingly high volume of water that these companies are taking. This video should incite people, as it did with me, to fight for change. What these companies are doing are not only morally wrong, but could have a major impact on the environment and make water in many places even more scarce than it already is. There can be a number of ways for people to fight these companies and their evil practices, but all it will take is enough public support to either shame the companies or force governments to take action against these companies.

2) There are over 10 million people in Madagascar who don't have access to safe water. About 66% of people in urban areas have access to safe water, yet fewer than 15% of people in rural areas do, making overcoming poverty seemingly impossible. Only 24% of households in the urban capital of Antananarivo have a private water connection with the remainder dependent on standpipes and water kiosks, unimproved sources, and a very small minority from wells. Overall, about 20% of the population has direct access to toilets, 55% use sanitary pails and 15% defecate in the open. These are serious numbers which show that water use in Madagascar is dangerously bad. Many kids are dying from diarrhoea due to the unsafe water.

Waikiki Beach Case Study

1) The erosion on Waikiki Beach caused by all the mand-mde structures on the coastline has had effects on the beach itself. For instance, it has created a concrete slab with sharp edges that could harm he people. There has been a lot of sand that has vanished from Waikiki beach because of erosion. This loss of sand has also led to over 10 replenishment projects being drawn up over the past several decades.

2) They have added sand many times in attempt to make the beach bigger and safer. There is a recycling program which offers a more efficient method for maintaining a recreational beach while mitigating some of the environmental effects of imported sand to the Waikiki ecosystem. I believe it hasn't been very effective since they have had to replenish the sand many times over many years, I believe they need to find new ways of stopping the erosion.

3)
Social: People would not be very attracted to Waikiki beach anymore and people who live in the area would loose interest in visiting the beach and its near attractions. A loss on tourism and jobs could lead to making it very hard to be have some financial stability.
Environment: The environment could be greatly effected, if the cement slabs were to break away it could make it very unsafe in the water off the beach and the parts of buildings and side walk they protect could also start to erode. The plants along the beach and sea life in the water could start to die off.
Economic: The economic impacts of erosion on Waikiki Beach can be grave. If the erosion continues, the area could suffer a loss of $2 billion from the tourism industry. The loss of tax revenue could be over $150 million and there could also be a lot of jobs lost, as it could read over 5,000 jobs lost.

Glacial Retreat Case Study

Part A:
1) In the Himalayas due to the rising temperature in the Himalayas, the glaciers are melting at a faster rate than the rest of the world. Warmer summers and less snow in the winters will cause a negative mass balance and the glaciers will retreat.
In the Glacier National Park, mountain snowpacks hold less water and melt two weeks earlier in the spring, this drastically impacts wildlife drinking water. Some of the parks glaciers might actually vanish in a few decades and if the climate continues, all of them could disappear as well. In the Antarctic Peninsula, warming has been much slower in spring and summer than in fall and winter, but has been impactful. Seasonal snow coverage has decreased, floating ice shelves have been lost, and glacier termini have retreated.

2) Social: The impacts could consist of a loss of tourists wanting to visit the area and therefore meaning that locals who live near the glacier may miss out on extra income from tourism. Other factors are unreliable snowfall which could result in there not being enough snow for winter sports such as skiing and snowboarding. This could cause a sharp increase of unemployment would arise in these areas and locals may be forced to move away to look for work in more residential areas.  
Environmental: The impacts are at a global scale could contribute to sea-level rise, a change with significant consequences in coastal areas around the globe. However, some small areas near mountains with melting glaciers could have small rivers and other water resources overflow and flood. In a long term stand point most regions of the world, glaciers are now providing less water than before to the rivers immediately below them, reducing the availability of an important resource.
Economic: This would be really impacted and have lots of tourism and water resources shut down which means losses of businesses causing unemployment. Also, damages could happen if floods are to happen and if it gets really bad there could also be people who become homeless, but that is very unlikely to happen. 

Part B:
Lots of the tourist attractions involving glaciers will be greatly affected as they melt and retreat away. The tourism industry will go down dramatically and money would become harder to come by with business depleting. Also, with less snow falling because of warmer weather and the melting ice will make it less likely to have huge snowfalls meaning harder to run winter sports such as snowboarding and skiing. This could have a major impact on future winter olympics.

Part C:
The general impacts of glacial retreat have occured worldwide affecting the availability of fresh water for irrigation and domestic use, mountain recreation, animals and plants. These all depend on glacier-melt, and in the longer term and to some extent so does the level of the oceans. In areas that are heavily dependent on water runoff from glaciers that melt during the warmer summer months, a continuation of the current retreat will eventually deplete the glacial ice and substantially reduce or eliminate runoff. A reduction in runoff will affect the ability to irrigate crops and will reduce summer stream flows necessary to keep dams and reservoirs replenished. 

Flooding in Brisbane Case Study

1) 2 storms causing heavy rains led to flooding in Queensland. The trade winds were also a cause, because the prevailing pattern of easterly winds in the tropics, forcing warm water to build up in the western Pacific which leads to heavier rainfall. One of the dams built had an impact as the waterfalls created provided even more water for the floods.

2)
Social - The floods have made people homeless. They have put a dent in the resources of Queensland's health services. There is not much access to safe drinking water, medicine and hygienic food. There are lots of diarrhoeal diseases, which can lead to severe food poisoning for example.

Environmental - The agriculture industry took a huge hit. Lots of crops were ruined and the water supplies got contaminated and made it unsafe to drink in some areas and use on crops. Some Queensland construction and contract mining operations were affected and rendering some of them useless.

Economic - Tourism had been impacted as well since there was no access in and out of the area and tourists were stranded. This impact was big as it is a $4 billion industry. There was also tons of damage done to homes, infrastructures and many buildings. Many people lost their homes and possessions they due to either the water damage or simply being swept away. Queensland suffered about hundreds of millions of dollars in total damages.

3)
They have been committed to the idea of flood risk management. This involves many strategies including flood mitigation infrastructure helps in preventing some floods. There is land use planning and development control measures can help prevent floods, and also the recovery from them. Flood awareness and information can help across all four phases of prevention, preparation, response and recovery. Flood emergency management can help prepare for, respond to and recover from future floods.

Earthquake in Madagascar

1. The earthquake occured on January 25th, 2013. The magnitude of the earthquake was 5.3. It hit approximately 9 km west of the city of Anakao.

2. The focus of the earthquake was located at 23.654°S, 43.553°E. It was a shallow focus earthquake with a depth of 14 km.

3. The earthquake occured as a result of fault zones in the Indian Ocean.

4. The Richter Scale magnitude was 5.3.

5. a. The Biosphere wasn't really affected as the only impact could be the roads being damaged making it difficult for the people to travel.

b. The roads were damaged somewhat as a result of the earthquake.

c. The economic impact wasn't serious. However they did need to pay for cleanup and fixing of roads and buildings.

d. Infrastructure such as roads and buildings were damaged due to some intense shaking.

Desertification Case Study

1) Desertification occurs when fertile ground becomes a desert and dries out. It is usually caused by deforestation and droughts.

2) Botswana lies right across the Tropic of Capricorn and the majority of the land surface in Botswana is made up of a desert. This doesn't hold surface water for long periods of time which led to an over reliance on underground water. The Kalahari Desert occupies just over two thirds of the country's land mass. With the affect of droughts in the country, it is really hard for the water to stay on the land. Also, because its really flat it can't flow very well through the country, it absorbs into the ground really fast.

3) The desertification problems in Botswana mostly come from the severe times of drought. The drought caused 75% of the country’s human and animal populations to be dependent on groundwater which has eased the effects of the drought, but has left a greater impact on the land. Groundwater is obtained by drilling deep holes, which causes erosion of the land. Surface water is very rare in Botswana and a miniscule amount of the agriculture in the country is sustained by rainfall. Due to this, about 95% of the country raises cattle and livestock as a means for an income. Therefore only 71% of the country’s land is used for communal grazing, which has been a major cause for the desertification of the country. Factors such as deforestation, overgrazing, poor cropping methods and improper soil conservation techniques also made a big mark on the country's desertification.

4) The government has made new policies to the land use in Botswana. There are several programmes such as the, the Tribal Grazing Lands Policy, the Arable Lands Development Programme and the Remote Area Resettlement Scheme. They have also adopted the principle of bottom up approach in tackling desertification that is emphasized by the UNCCD, because people at grassroots level deal directly with impacts ofland degradation on daily basis. Botswana developed National Action Programme to Combat Desertification as required by the UNCCD. These are some of the many projects on going to help the desertification in Botswana, they are aimed to achieve and help soil conservation, livestock production, rangelands and wildlife management, water and land management. Some of their goals are to keep it as cheap as possible and introduce ecologically sound to make it ethical.

Mass Wasting - China

The devastating landslide in Zhouqu, China that killed many and made many homeless has a lot of causes and ways that could have some what prevented it. China is one of the worlds hot spots for landslides, the ground is very shaky. The main issue is that the region has gone through about 50 years of unrestrained logging. Many mountain tops have been stripped bare by the logging. Each year, forests have declined and the environment has been damaged beyond its capacity to recover. By the time local governments started to plant trees to stabilize the soil, the vegetation was unable to form on the steep, thinly soiled slopes. There have been efforts to help restore the way of life in the western part of China. The restoration of a permanent water supply started in Zhouqu county in northwest China's Gansu Province as the rebuilding of the mudslide-battered area picked up and has mostly been completed now. Safe drinking water will be available within five months of being completed. Zhouqu's main water supplies were cut after the mudslides and emergency water containers had been used to provide safe water for a while after the disaster.

Agricultural Water Use

Drip Irrigation:
Pros - Concentrating the irrigation to specific plants can prevent weeds from germinating nearby. Also, when you spread your tubing around the plants, the subsequent irrigation provides an even distribution of moisture. As a result, you will sustain a healthy soil environment for optimal growth.

Cons - If your drip irrigation installation is done poorly, it could result in poor root development and die back. For example, looping your tubing too wide or installing a small quantity of water emitters creates drought conditions where the roots grow.

Sprinkler Irrigation:
Pros - An irrigation sprinkler system is a competent and fast system designed to meet the water needs for your plants. It is a form of simulated actual rainfall to water your plants. You can place them on pretty much every surface which gives you a lot of options.

Cons - The efficiency of sprinkler irrigation can be affected by wind. Also, with regards to crop sensitivity, some crops are affected from leaf scorch, fungal disease, along with other damage which may be caused by salt being deposited about the leaves. They also cost a ton of money to install.

Surface Irrigation:
Pros - Minimal capital investment or energy costs, and less affected by climatic and water quality factors. Easy to see the effectiveness of the system and how much it helps. They help a lot with floods and help keep the plants healthy for the most part.

Cons - They tend to be less efficient than other systems, and are very labor intensive and sometimes could be difficult to engineer. There can be high possibilities of disease pressure in the case of flooding. Drainage can also be a problem in some circumstances, if doesn't drain properly it will start to flood which can cause some diseases to get into the plants.

Land Subsidence Case Study

a) Overdrafting of aquifers is the major cause of subsidence in the southwestern United States, and as ground-water pumping increases, land subsidence also will increase. In many aquifers, ground water is pumped from pore spaces between grains of sand and gravel. Land subsidence is the lowering of the land-surface elevation from changes that take place underground. Common causes of land subsidence from human activity are pumping water, oil, and gas from the underground. It happens in nearly every state in the United States of America.

b) Land subsidence causes many problems including changes in elevation and slope of streams, canals, and drains. Also, there is damage to bridges, roads, railroads, storm drains, sewers, and canals. It can cause damage to private and public buildings. In some coastal areas, subsidence has resulted in tides moving into low-lying areas that were previously above high-tide levels.

c) In an effort to prevent further land subsidence, we could establish alternate ways to deal with water underground which will help cut down the risk of subsidence becoming an issue. If we cut back on projects like digging holes and uprooting tress it would hopefully help prevent the possibility of subsidence. There's no real way to stop subsidence that we know of, all we can really do is try new things to avoid being enveloped by the Earth in a sad ending to humanity.

Earthquake in Vancouver

1. There hasn't been a major earthquake since 1700, known as the 1700 Cascadia earthquake, there could be another major earthquake soon especially with a bunch of more recent earthquakes in other subduction zones.

2. Our area is very close to sea level making it vulnerable to a tsunami and feeling major affects of a monstrous earthquake. There are tons of trees and loose rocks on mountain sides and lots of tall sky scrapers in the major cities.

3. a) Liquefaction would be a major issue in the South Delta, Richmond and Tsawassen area because they are at sea level and the ground can easily become liquefied.

Landslides would be a major area in the North Vancouver and Vancouver Island and Gulf Island areas because of all the forests and hill sides and mountains with loose rocks all over them.

A tsunami would be a major concern for Victoria and other cities along the coast of B.C. because they aren't a major land mass and can easily be swept under water and many peoples lives would be destroyed.

Flooding would occur along Vancouver Island and all the cities and towns along the Pacific Ocean like Vancouver and Richmond. The sea level would rise causing these areas at sea level to flood.

b) The social impact would be major as lots of lives would be in danger and the people who do survive would have a really long tough time of going back to a normal life.

Economic impact would be huge as many buildings would be damaged and destroyed and lots of roads and bridges and many other man made structures would get obliterated causing a huge price tag for our province and country.

Impact on our provinces infrastructures would be huge as it would take tons of time to repair and rebuild especially since the most expensive things are right at sea level. Also, it would take almost a whole generation to rebuild the affected areas to what they are today.

4. Metro Vancouver is preparing for this major earthquake by putting in earthquake proof pipes in downtown Vancouver and other sea level cities and some skyscrapers mainly in downtown Vancouver are getting earthquake proof structures causing them to be able to sway slightly without getting major damage.

 

Aquaculture

1. Aquaculture is the rearing of aquatic animals or the cultivation of aquatic plants for food.

2. It effects humans because it can be unhealthy with all the different types antibiotics in the fish and different types of dyes, and fungicides and pollutants that the food can attract. Also, farm fish foods have a lot lower protein levels and other things you benefit from fish. Although it can be very beneficial as it provides humans with fish to eat. The environment will be affected because there's lots of degradation and a lot of suspended solids. Therefore the nutrient and organic enrichment of recipient waters resulting in build-up of anoxic sediments and the eutrophication of lakes. It can help the environment if people are very responsible and help stop the amount of pollution being emitted. It affects the economy because they cost a lot of money to create and keep running, but they're very cheap to buy from and they help create jobs giving lots of people good money.

3. I believe aquaculture is a good thing to have in our lifetime. Mainly because it helps prevent extinction to some extent, but in order for it to be very effective we as a society need to stop fishing as much. Also, it provides more jobs for people helping people be more financially stable which is also beneficial to the economy. As we evolve as a generation I believe we can fix the problems of how aquaculture works today. For example, I believe we can cut down a huge amount of the pollution emitted today and I believe we'll be able to figure out a way to make the fish healthier and better for us to eat. Overall I really think aquaculture will be needed in the future in order for us to keep the fish around we love and still being able to benefit us when they give us the great nutrients they contain.

Deforestation

1.
Deforestation has created agricultural or pastoral land in Madagascar but it has led to water resource degradation, biodiversity erosion and habitat loss, and soil loss.

2.
Environmental Impact: The only positive aspect of this method is a slight, quick rise in agricultural production. But there are many negatives. Obviously with less trees there is more pollution or CO2 let into the air but there is one major problem with deforestation in Madagascar which is that it effects the biodiversity which is the wealth of life on earth. A reduction in biodiversity is bad because biodiversity is important for future advances in industry, medicine, agriculture and other fields. They may also suffer with land erosion and river contamination.

Social Impact: The communities may benefit from the rise in agricultural production in the short term after deforestation. But over time, a loss in biodiversity will affect the beauty of the country and will definitely cause a drop in the tourism industry for Madagascar.

Economic Impact: Deforestation has incurred a number of problems. This has led to a poorer standard of living and a decrease in the GDP. Short-term economic gains made by conversion of forest to agriculture, the exploitation of wood products, leads to loss of long term income and long term biological productivity. Also, there has been a decline in timber harvests in Madagascar, which has led to a lower revenue.

3.
I feel like deforestation is a greater threat in Canada because even though our country is huge we have lost lots of our forests. Even though now there are lots of efforts being done to restore our forests it wont be the same to what it was in the past.

Rhine River Case Study Harjan + Owen

1. The Rhine River is called the "Industrial Heartland" for many reasons. It connects the largest seaport with the largest inland port. Many of the industrial complexes are built along the river. It is the longest river in Europe and it cuts through 6 countries which makes it a good route for transporting raw materials and goods.

2. The river has been involved in a straightening process due to
improved navigation which means that water moves downstream more quickly. Urbanisation in the Rhine catchment area has also helped flooding because the concrete and tarmac send more water to the river than the fields they replaced.

3. Some solutions could be that they put up barricade's or dam like structures to slow down the flow of the water and help keep a lot of the trash out of the river. They could also create sewers that lead else where so less pollution goes into the river and the water would become a lot cleaner. In the river they could make filtration systems that will help stop trash from flowing down the river and also slow the flow.

Fishing

A)
Fishermen: Once all the fish are gone from the oceans they won't be able to make living off of fishing.

Consumers: Seafood restaurants will go out of business and people who live off of eating the fish will have a tough time trying to live without it.

Governments: People will lash out at the government and blame them for not doing anything to help save the fish and this could change the results of future elections.

Environment: The way of life in oceans could become a lot worse if fish species start to become extinct if not endangered already.

B) 

-Salmon in BC are a huge industry

-Humans are using many climate polluting energy sources. This leads to the salmon struggling to survive and thrive in the now overheated Fraser River. The river is becoming too warm and too low for their survival. Already there are more and more salmon dying on their way to the spawning grounds. Overfishing is another contributor to the decline in Pacific salmon. Commercial and recreational fishing have really depleted the amount of salmon. In 2005, a report stated that around 35% of the salmon runs in BC were depressed. But in a recent report from 2012  it was reported that around 75% of the runs were now depressed.

-If BC were to lose the salmon, it would create a huge impact on the economy and on local ecosystems. Salmon are a food source to many animals which contribute to the overall beauty of mature in BC such as bears, eagles and orcas. Salmon farming, commercial fishing and sport fishing combine to contribute to over $200 million to the provincial GDP plus hold over 1000 jobs. Needless to say, but salmon are a huge part of BC and it will be a struggle for them if the salmon numbers don't pick up.

Mining

Part A

 Strip Mining is an open mine, that runs close to ground level, and is exposed by the removal of the top layer of soil and rocks.

Pros:
-It is inxpensive
-Lots of space to work so machinery can move around freely
-Workers are not exposed to explosive poison gases

Cons:
-It destroys a lot of the environment
-Leaves giant holes in the ground
-The use of acid washes on site can damage the soil and environment as well


 Shaft mining is when a excavate a vertical tunnel from the top down, where there is initially no access to the bottom.

Pros:
-It produces very little waste and less damaging to the environment
-Only requires a smaller mill
-More profit per ton of ore mined
       
Cons: 
-It is very expensive
-Poor breathing conditions due to the lack of ventilation
-This way of mining is more hazardous to workers overall


Part B

Spouse of a miner: As a spouse of a miner I would be worried about their safety when going to work in a mine. Shaft mining is dangerous for a miners health, so I would prefer strip mining because it is much safer.

Owner of a mining company: As an owner of a mining company I would want the cheapest type of mining, which would be strip mining. Also, I would want my employees to be safe on the job.

Environmentalist: As an environmentalist I wouldn't care about how much the mining would cost, my main concern would be the environment. I would prefer shaft mining over strip mining.

Owner of nearby ski resorts: As an owner of nearby ski resorts I would be about the environment around the ski resort, so I would prefer shaft mining. Nobody wants to ski in an ugly landscape.

Politician: If I was a politician that cared about money, and how much things cost, then I would prefer strip mining because it is cheaper than shaft mining.

Part C

In Madagascar, the mining industry only accounts for less than 1% of the country's GDP. Madagascar has the world's largest sapphire reserves. Poor location and infrastructure make it difficult for Madagascar to make good use of their mining potential.

Impacts of Climate Change

Impacts of Climate Change in Madagascar

Hydrosphere:

- The water levels have risen, but can still rise a lot more causing floods throughout towns along the coast.
- Rising sea levels will also increase the risk of erosion and salt water intrusion.
- Lower river flows in summer will raise water temperatures and aggravate water quality problems.
- There will be a higher demand for water during hot, dry summers.
- In the winter there will be more intense rainfall which will lead to flooding and flash flooding when the urban sewage drains overflow.
- River flows are likely to be lower in summer and higher in winter.
- More coastal protection would be needed due to the higher water levels.
- Upwelling waters in the south region is leading to much richer fishery resources.

Lithosphere:

- Increased temperatures may reduce comfort of occupants in domestic, commercial and public buildings, and could lead to business disruption.
- Bridges could be unusable if sea level rises high enough.
- Hotter summers may cause railways to falter and roads to crumble which will have high expenses for repairs.
- It will be more difficult to access adequate insurance cover due to the  increased flood risk.
- Soil degradation, deforestation, and undermining will occur.
- Very likely that there would be costs associated with changing land-use activities to suit a new climate.
- Currently, there has been an increase in El Niño effects which ties into droughts and wildfires.

Atmosphere:

- A warmer and dryer climate will emerge.
- When the air heats up, people will be more vulnerable to illnesses such as colds and flu.
- Cyclones could become more common and probably larger and more destructive because of the warmer air.
- Pests and diseases will start to spread a lot faster.
- There will be a much higher amount of carbon released into the air.
- Heat stroke and subtropical diseases will become more common.

Biosphere:

- Droughts cause water to dry up and crops and plants to die and make it a lot harder to live especially in their already tropical climate. Many plants and animals would die.
- Shifting ocean currents will have strong impacts on fish populations and the migration routes of numerous wide-ranging species such as whales and turtles. 
- Change of rainfall patterns have already happened and will affect plants and crops the same and cause farmers to adjust to the patterns.
- Native ecosystems may be invaded by exotic species.
- Fruit and vegetable growers may find it more expensive to insure against hail damage.
- Warmer temperatures will reduce some critical habitats, but increasing the risk of localised extinction.
- If the sea level rises significantly, then  people will need to relocate towards the interior of the island
- Forests and other vegetation may grow faster.
- Corals and the ecosystems they support are vulnerable to bleaching and changes in ocean chemistry. 

Biomes Research Project

Biome: Tropical Rainforest

Location:
Aside from Madagascar, the rainforest biome is located in central Africa as well as throughout southeast Asia and South America. Rain forests account for just less than 6% of Earth's surface.

Climate:
Rain forests deal with a tropical wet climate. It is also very hot because tropical rainforests are all near the equator. The temperature can range from 20°C to 34°C and the amount of precipitation could be between 125 and 660 cm per year. The humidity in the rainforest can range from 77% to 88%.

Animals:
There are many animals which inhabit the rainforests of the world. Some of them are gorillas, anteaters, tigers, toucans, anacondas, butterflies, poisonous frogs, chimpanzees as well as many more. Some animals with adaptations include:

Anaconda - This long and heavy species of snake have adapted to the rain forest with regards to camouflage to hide among the trees and grass. Also, they possess prehensile tails to grip onto branches when hunting.

Bengal Tiger - These tigers have soft, padded feet which allow them to stalk their prey and they also have excellent nocturnal vision to allow for them to be able to hunt at night.

Jaguar - Jaguars have spots to help them with camouflage as well as long tails to assist with balance, sharp turns and for climbing.

Chimpanzee - Chimpanzees have strong arms to swing through the trees and they also have opposable thumbs which help them grip to branches.

Toucan - -Toucans in the rainforest have stronger/bigger beaks for eating fruits and they have two claws in front and 1 in the back of their feet to have an excellent grip to branches of the trees.
In most cases, species have adapted in ways involving camouflage, ability to grip to branches as well as altered body parts to enhance the stalking and hunting of prey.

Plants:
There are also an incredibly high number of species of plants in the rainforest. Some species which are present are orchids, tualang, fig trees, durian, curare, and ferns.
Almost all of the plants have adapted to the rainforest with regards to the high amount of rainfall. They have gained the ability to have bigger and stronger leaves to allow for the water to just fall off the plant in an effort to not weigh down and snap. Having bigger leaves is also beneficial as it can be very dark in the rainforest so bigger leaves will make it a little more likely for the plant to get some sunlight. Trees have thin bark to protect them from plants growing on them due to the high humidity. They also have buttress roots to allow for extra support in the shallow soil of the rainforest.

Soil:

The 2 types of soils present in the rainforest are the the ultisols and oxisols. Ultisols are known as well weathered, acidic red clay soils, deficient in major nutrients such as calcium and potassium. Oxisols are acidic, old, reddish, highly weathered and leached. But they are well drained compared to ultisols. The reddish color of both soils is the result of heavy heat and moisture forming oxides of iron and aluminum, which are insoluble in water and not taken up readily by plants. The soil is very shallow and heavy rains have pretty much completely depleted the amount of nutrients in the soil.

Limiting Factors:
Examples of this are predators hunting more of a specific prey in an area due to increase in population or food supply of a species declining due to rapid growth of a population. Also, natural disasters and tropical storms are examples of limiting factors. Rainforests can be very dark due to many tall trees which leads to a competition between plants on the floor for sunlight, which makes it very difficult for plants to survive in this biome.



Human Impact:

Human activity has had a primarily negative impact on this biome with one major problem; deforestation. Deforestation is essentially completely destroying many ecosystems and habitats which is leading to many species of the rainforests becoming endangered. The tropical rainforest biomes around the world are being broken down by deforestation slowly, but surely.

Bibliography:

http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/rainforest.htm
http://www.rain-tree.com/facts.htm#.VSREjU10wdU

http://lo2fosho.blogspot.ca/2011/01/limiting-factors-of-tropical-rainforest.html
http://www.geography.learnontheinternet.co.uk/topics/rainforest.html#humans